Christian priests went to the extreme of considering the woman as the cause of "original sin" and the source of all catastrophes from which the entire world has suffered. For this very reason, the physical relationship between man and woman has traditionally been labeled as "filthy" or "dirty" even if it were officially done and performed within a legitimate marriage contract. Saint Trotolian says:
"Woman is the Satan's pathway to a man's heart. Woman pushes man to the "Cursed Tree." Woman violates God's laws and distorts his picture (i.e. man's picture).
Wieth Knudesen, a Danish writer, illustrated the woman's status in the middle ages saying:
"According to the Catholic faith, which considered the woman as a second class citizen, very little care and attention was given to her."
In 1586 a conference was held in France to decide whether women should be considered as human beings or not. The conference came to a conclusion that:
"Woman is a human being, but she is created to serve man."
Thus, the conference approved the rights for women as human beings, a matter that was previously in doubt and undecided! Moreover, those who attended the conference did not decide on full rights for the woman, but rather; she was a follower of man and a maidservant to him with no personal rights. This decision was in effect until 1938, when, for the first time, a decree wasissued to abrogate all the laws that forbid a woman from conducting her own financial affairs directly and opening a bank account in her own name.
Europeans continued to discriminate against women and deprive them of their rights throughout the Middle-Ages. It is also surprising to know that English laws turned a blind eye to the selling of one's wife! The rift between the sexes, men and women, continued to increase, so much so that women became fully under the control of men. Women were stripped completely of all their rights and whatever they owned.
All that a woman owned belonged to her husband. For instance, until very recently women, according to the French law, were not considered capable of making their own financial decisions in their private ownership. We can read article 217 of the French law that states:
"A married woman has no right to grant, transfer, bond, own with or without payment, without her husband's participation in the sale contract, or his written consent to it, regardless of whether the marriage contract stipulated that there should be a complete separation between the husband's and wife's possessions and ownership of various items."
Despite all amendments and modifications, which occurred in these French laws, we can still see how these laws are affecting married French women. It is a form of civilized slavery. Furthermore, a married woman loses her surname (family's name) as soon as she enters into a marriage contract. A married woman shall carry the family name of her husband. This, of course, indicates that a married woman will only be a follower of her husband and she will even lose her personal identity.
Bernard Shaw, the well-known English writer says:
"The moment a woman marries; all her personal possessions become her husband's in accordance to the English law."
Lastly, there is one more injustice that has been imposed upon the woman in the Western society which is that a marriage bond is made to last forever, in accordance with legal and religiousteachings. There is no right of divorce (according to Catholicism, at least). Husband and wife are only separated from each other physically. This separation may have contributed to all sorts of social decay and corruption, such as having affairs, mistresses, boyfriends, girlfriends, as well as possibly prostitution, and homosexual and lesbian relations. Moreover, a surviving widow is not given the chance to remarry and lead a normal married life after the death of her husband.
No doubt, what is called modern western civilization and which endeavors to dominate the globe, is indebted to the Greek and Roman traditions for its civil foundations, and to the Judaic-Christian traditions for its ideological and religious foundations. The abuses mentioned above collectively led, due to gradual and eventual effects of technological and social modernization, to the expected and natural reaction: movements demanding women's rights in the society, led by thinkers, educators, lobbyists, and human rights and women right's activists.
The pendulum was set to swing in the other direction, and they demanded absolute equal rights and liberation from male chauvinism and abuses. In many of the modern secular societies, women are indeed given numerous equal rights, but at the same time, equality has exposed them to the molestation and double standards rampant in the immoral materialistic culture that markets her as an object of sexual desire, for sale, contract or rent. The ensuing breakdown of the family unit, and the widespread sexual immorality, abortion, homosexuality, and criminal deviancy from sexual liberation, has led to some counter reactions in the society, especially from the religious conservatives, but apparently, the trends are too strong to turn the tide back.
In this global context, and from this historical legacy, we will present the salient features of women's rights in Islam and shed light on some common misconceptions in order to show the superiority of following Allah's guidance rather than men and women guiding each other by whim and desire.
Thursday, June 10, 2010
Monday, April 5, 2010
The Status of Women in Saudi Arabia
The Status of Women in Saudi Arabia
There is no doubt that the status of women in Saudi Arabia has been controversial for a long time. After Sept. 11, the controversy intensified since Saudi Arabia was the main focus of blame for the attacks. Saudi women were portrayed in the US media as being abused and disrespected by an extremist religious ideology.
While we Saudis admit that the status of women in our country has not been what we would have desired, we cannot agree with the idea that Saudi women are underprivileged and oppressed. The Saudi mother is a highly respected member of the family. According to a saying by the Prophet Muhammad (pbuh), “Heaven is under the feet of mothers.”
Having said that, there are certainly instances of abused women in Saudi Arabia — just as there are all over the world. At the same time, our extended family values and our Muslim heritage protect women from many abuses such as homelessness, prostitution and drug addictions. Now I would like to concentrate on what is being currently done in the Kingdom to improve the status of women. The right of women to own and run their own businesses is guaranteed in Islam; our religion assures women sole control of their inheritance and grants them property rights. Today’s new revised business laws will allow women to obtain commercial licenses which is likely to encourage businesswomen to invest their money and assets in industrial and other projects.
A recent study showed that the majority of heirs to family-owned businesses in the country are women — a fact that calls for greater involvement by Saudi women in managing business, both directly and indirectly. Many family-owned firms are among the largest in the country in terms of assets, operation and manpower. There are at least 460 such businesses; moreover, there is mounting pressure among these businesses to allow Saudi women direct involvement in business rather than obliging them to keep their money in bank accounts.
At present, there are some 20,000 firms owned by Saudi women; these range from ordinary retail businesses to various types of industry. This figure accounts for some five percent of all registered businesses. The number of women registered in local chambers of commerce and industry is on the increase. The Jeddah chamber, for example, has more than 2000 women members out of a total membership of 50,000. In Riyadh, the figure is over 2,400 out of a total of 35,000 members and this represents a fourfold increase in just ten years. Businesswomen registered with the Eastern Province chamber number more than 1,000 out of a total of 14,000.
The Jeddah Chamber of Commerce has recently established the “Khadija bint Khwailid Center” to provide services for businesswomen, facilitate business opportunities and provide guidance to encourage women to run their own business. (The center was named after the Prophet Mohammad’s wife who was the first Muslim businesswoman.)
Saudi businesswomen acknowledge the efforts of the government as well as the local chambers of commerce for supporting them and providing them with service but more needs to be done. Due to an increase in the number of Saudi businesswomen, the government has had to revise its 30-year-old labor laws and business proceedings to include women. In addition, society’s attitude toward businesswomen has also changed.
According to economists, women have substantial assets in real estate, jewelry, precious stones and metals. The new opportunities offered to women will include media and marketing, IT, banking and investment. As foreign companies enter the market after Saudi Arabia joins the WTO, new jobs will be created for women. A businesswomen’s committee has been formed to discuss government policies and procedures that will help women participate in nation-building.
Women account for 55 percent of Saudi graduates but they constitute only 4.8 percent of the work force. At present only 5.5 percent of an estimated 4.7 million Saudi women of working age are employed.
With the support of private and public agencies, efforts are being made to establish women-only projects that will employ 70,000 qualified Saudi women. The new projects will help solve the problem of increasing unemployment among Saudi women. The government has also allocated land for industrial projects that will employ women. Plans are also under way to establish an Industrial Training Institute for Women in Jeddah; the institute plans to train Saudi women in the manufacture of readymade dresses.
Granting women a more significant role is essential for the nation’s progress and its economy. Saudi economists stress the need for employing women and both political analysts as well as economists believe that the Kingdom is on the right track with different types of structural reforms, both economic and social. Ultimately, women will participate in all major economic activities and will be a vital part of reform. The government recognizes that without these human resources that have been marginalized for too long, no serious economic growth can take place. Economists estimate that by the end of this year, women will comprise some eight percent of the public sector workforce. The main reason for the increase is the effort being made to replace expatriates with Saudis. There are plans to create more than 817,000 jobs by the year 2005. This is part of the Saudization drive that aims at reducing reliance on foreigners and forcing businesses to hire a minimum number of Saudis.
The idea of Saudi women’s limitations is starting to change. Women today are active in several civil institutions. One is the newly formed National Human Rights Association. It is a nongovernmental organization, which will promote women’s rights and contribute to social justice.
The government recognizes the association’s objectives and is prepared to support women and implement the committee’s recommendations. Members of the committee say that the association will be permitted to seek explanations on decisions related to women’s legal rights. Another important development is the participation of women in the National Dialogue. National debates were initially encouraged by the government in order to foster the idea of dialogue that has been missing from Saudi society. The Center for National Dialogue was formed to bring about constructive change and to take peaceful action supported by the state. Citizens’ civil rights in addition to the right of men and women to participate in public affairs were among the recommendations made by the First National Dialogue Forum held in Makkah in December 2003. At the second dialogue, participants adopted recommendations combating extremism, calling for public involvement in the decision-making process and establishing civic institutions. The third dialogue held in Madinah in June gathered 70 male and female thinkers and researchers to discuss women’s rights and duties in the Kingdom. The meeting lifted a virtual ban or taboo that has existed for years about discussing women’s issues. It initiated a social dialogue and triggered and renewed interest in women’s rights and women’s roles in the future of Saudi Arabia. Of course greater efforts are needed. The dialogue reflected the Saudi leadership’s opinion that women are an integral part of the reform process. It conveyed the message very clearly that both men and women are partners in reform.
In the media, Saudi women journalists and writers have been prominent in voicing their opinions concerning incorrect attitudes, traditions and ideas which are not based in Islam but which are responsible for many problems women face in Saudi Arabia. The media has also been instrumental in promoting and projecting a positive image of today’s professional women. Awareness campaigns are conducted in an effort to inform women of their legal rights and of matters concerning family and health. The government has approved a new educational strategy to steer the country’s educational system toward meeting the requirements of the local job market. In order to raise the standard of education for women and to improve the qualifications of all Saudis, the government has set up a body to oversee higher education in addition to a national center to review the educational system. In conclusion I stress the significance of the role of women in the Kingdom’s reforms, bearing in mind that Saudi Arabia’s population growth rate is among the highest in the world. It surpasses the national economic growth. Sixty percent of the population is below the age of twenty. More than fifty percent are women. These statistics are crucial and impose the need to improve the status of women and secure equal treatment for all citizens in accordance with Islamic principles of justice and nondiscrimination. In order to accelerate these reforms, however, both stability and national unity are required. Islamic scholars are actively advocating tolerance and moderation. Hard-liners have been removed in an effort to protect Saudi society from extremist ideologies, narrow-mindedness and discrimination against women.
There is no doubt that the status of women in Saudi Arabia has been controversial for a long time. After Sept. 11, the controversy intensified since Saudi Arabia was the main focus of blame for the attacks. Saudi women were portrayed in the US media as being abused and disrespected by an extremist religious ideology.
While we Saudis admit that the status of women in our country has not been what we would have desired, we cannot agree with the idea that Saudi women are underprivileged and oppressed. The Saudi mother is a highly respected member of the family. According to a saying by the Prophet Muhammad (pbuh), “Heaven is under the feet of mothers.”
Having said that, there are certainly instances of abused women in Saudi Arabia — just as there are all over the world. At the same time, our extended family values and our Muslim heritage protect women from many abuses such as homelessness, prostitution and drug addictions. Now I would like to concentrate on what is being currently done in the Kingdom to improve the status of women. The right of women to own and run their own businesses is guaranteed in Islam; our religion assures women sole control of their inheritance and grants them property rights. Today’s new revised business laws will allow women to obtain commercial licenses which is likely to encourage businesswomen to invest their money and assets in industrial and other projects.
A recent study showed that the majority of heirs to family-owned businesses in the country are women — a fact that calls for greater involvement by Saudi women in managing business, both directly and indirectly. Many family-owned firms are among the largest in the country in terms of assets, operation and manpower. There are at least 460 such businesses; moreover, there is mounting pressure among these businesses to allow Saudi women direct involvement in business rather than obliging them to keep their money in bank accounts.
At present, there are some 20,000 firms owned by Saudi women; these range from ordinary retail businesses to various types of industry. This figure accounts for some five percent of all registered businesses. The number of women registered in local chambers of commerce and industry is on the increase. The Jeddah chamber, for example, has more than 2000 women members out of a total membership of 50,000. In Riyadh, the figure is over 2,400 out of a total of 35,000 members and this represents a fourfold increase in just ten years. Businesswomen registered with the Eastern Province chamber number more than 1,000 out of a total of 14,000.
The Jeddah Chamber of Commerce has recently established the “Khadija bint Khwailid Center” to provide services for businesswomen, facilitate business opportunities and provide guidance to encourage women to run their own business. (The center was named after the Prophet Mohammad’s wife who was the first Muslim businesswoman.)
Saudi businesswomen acknowledge the efforts of the government as well as the local chambers of commerce for supporting them and providing them with service but more needs to be done. Due to an increase in the number of Saudi businesswomen, the government has had to revise its 30-year-old labor laws and business proceedings to include women. In addition, society’s attitude toward businesswomen has also changed.
According to economists, women have substantial assets in real estate, jewelry, precious stones and metals. The new opportunities offered to women will include media and marketing, IT, banking and investment. As foreign companies enter the market after Saudi Arabia joins the WTO, new jobs will be created for women. A businesswomen’s committee has been formed to discuss government policies and procedures that will help women participate in nation-building.
Women account for 55 percent of Saudi graduates but they constitute only 4.8 percent of the work force. At present only 5.5 percent of an estimated 4.7 million Saudi women of working age are employed.
With the support of private and public agencies, efforts are being made to establish women-only projects that will employ 70,000 qualified Saudi women. The new projects will help solve the problem of increasing unemployment among Saudi women. The government has also allocated land for industrial projects that will employ women. Plans are also under way to establish an Industrial Training Institute for Women in Jeddah; the institute plans to train Saudi women in the manufacture of readymade dresses.
Granting women a more significant role is essential for the nation’s progress and its economy. Saudi economists stress the need for employing women and both political analysts as well as economists believe that the Kingdom is on the right track with different types of structural reforms, both economic and social. Ultimately, women will participate in all major economic activities and will be a vital part of reform. The government recognizes that without these human resources that have been marginalized for too long, no serious economic growth can take place. Economists estimate that by the end of this year, women will comprise some eight percent of the public sector workforce. The main reason for the increase is the effort being made to replace expatriates with Saudis. There are plans to create more than 817,000 jobs by the year 2005. This is part of the Saudization drive that aims at reducing reliance on foreigners and forcing businesses to hire a minimum number of Saudis.
The idea of Saudi women’s limitations is starting to change. Women today are active in several civil institutions. One is the newly formed National Human Rights Association. It is a nongovernmental organization, which will promote women’s rights and contribute to social justice.
The government recognizes the association’s objectives and is prepared to support women and implement the committee’s recommendations. Members of the committee say that the association will be permitted to seek explanations on decisions related to women’s legal rights. Another important development is the participation of women in the National Dialogue. National debates were initially encouraged by the government in order to foster the idea of dialogue that has been missing from Saudi society. The Center for National Dialogue was formed to bring about constructive change and to take peaceful action supported by the state. Citizens’ civil rights in addition to the right of men and women to participate in public affairs were among the recommendations made by the First National Dialogue Forum held in Makkah in December 2003. At the second dialogue, participants adopted recommendations combating extremism, calling for public involvement in the decision-making process and establishing civic institutions. The third dialogue held in Madinah in June gathered 70 male and female thinkers and researchers to discuss women’s rights and duties in the Kingdom. The meeting lifted a virtual ban or taboo that has existed for years about discussing women’s issues. It initiated a social dialogue and triggered and renewed interest in women’s rights and women’s roles in the future of Saudi Arabia. Of course greater efforts are needed. The dialogue reflected the Saudi leadership’s opinion that women are an integral part of the reform process. It conveyed the message very clearly that both men and women are partners in reform.
In the media, Saudi women journalists and writers have been prominent in voicing their opinions concerning incorrect attitudes, traditions and ideas which are not based in Islam but which are responsible for many problems women face in Saudi Arabia. The media has also been instrumental in promoting and projecting a positive image of today’s professional women. Awareness campaigns are conducted in an effort to inform women of their legal rights and of matters concerning family and health. The government has approved a new educational strategy to steer the country’s educational system toward meeting the requirements of the local job market. In order to raise the standard of education for women and to improve the qualifications of all Saudis, the government has set up a body to oversee higher education in addition to a national center to review the educational system. In conclusion I stress the significance of the role of women in the Kingdom’s reforms, bearing in mind that Saudi Arabia’s population growth rate is among the highest in the world. It surpasses the national economic growth. Sixty percent of the population is below the age of twenty. More than fifty percent are women. These statistics are crucial and impose the need to improve the status of women and secure equal treatment for all citizens in accordance with Islamic principles of justice and nondiscrimination. In order to accelerate these reforms, however, both stability and national unity are required. Islamic scholars are actively advocating tolerance and moderation. Hard-liners have been removed in an effort to protect Saudi society from extremist ideologies, narrow-mindedness and discrimination against women.
Women in Japan
Women in Japan
Women in kimonos, Tokyo, JapanWomen in...
society
Workforce
Military
Politics
Legal rights
academics
Philosophy
Science
Engineering
Computing
Nobel Prize
religion
Buddhism
Christianity
Hinduism
Islam
Judaism
Sikhism
the arts &humanities
Literature
Speculative fiction
cultural works
Comics
Gender has been an important principle of stratification throughout Japanese history[citation needed], but the cultural elaboration of gender differences has varied over time and among different social classes. In the twelfth century (Heian period), for example, women could inherit property in their own names and manage it by themselves[citation needed]. Later, under feudal governments (the Shogunate), the status of women declined. Peasant women continued to have de facto freedom of movement and decisionmaking power, but upper-class women's lives were subject to the patrilineal and patriarchal ideology supported by the government as part of its efforts at social control[citation needed]. With early industrialization, young women participated in factory work under exploitive and unhealthy working conditions without gaining personal autonomy[citation needed]. In the Meiji period, industrialization and urbanization lessened the authority of fathers and husbands, but at the same time the Meiji Civil Code denied women legal rights[citation needed] and subjugated them to the will of household heads[citation needed]. Peasant women were less affected by the institutionalization of this trend, but it gradually spread even to remote areas. In the 1930s and 1940s, the government encouraged the formation of women's associations, applauded high fertility, and regarded motherhood as a patriotic duty to the Japanese Empire[citation needed].
After World War II, the legal position of women was redefined by the occupation authorities, who included an equal rights clause in the 1947 Constitution and the revised Civil Code of 1948. Individual rights were given precedence over obligation to family. Women as well as men were guaranteed the right to choose spouses and occupations, to inherit and own property in their own names, and to retain custody of their children. Women were given the right to vote in 1946. Other postwar reforms opened education institutions to women and required that women receive equal pay for equal work. In 1986 the Equal Employment Opportunity Law took effect. Legally, few barriers to women's equal participation in the life of society remain.
Contents [hide]
1 Education and workforce participation
2 Working women in Japan
3 See also
4 References
5 External links
[edit] Education and workforce participation
Gender inequality, however, continues in family life, the workplace, and popular values. The notion expressed in the proverbial phrase "good wife, wise mother," continues to influence beliefs about gender roles. Most women may not be able to realize that ideal, but many believe that it is in their own, their children's, and society's best interests that they stay home to devote themselves to their children, at least while the children were young. Many women find satisfaction in family life and in the accomplishments of their children, gaining a sense of fulfilment from doing good jobs as household managers and mothers. In most households, women are responsible for their family budgets and make independent decisions about the education, careers, and life-styles of their families. Women also take the social blame for problems of family members.
Women's educational opportunities have increased in the twentieth century. Among new workers in 1989, 37 % of women had received education beyond upper-secondary school, compared with 43 % of men, but most women had received their postsecondary education in junior colleges and technical schools rather than in universities and graduate schools (see Education in Japan).
[edit] Working women in Japan
After World War II, the fixed image of the Japanese woman has been that of the office lady, who becomes a housewife and a kyoiku mama after marriage. But a new generation of educated women is emerging, that is seeking a career as a working woman.
Japanese women are joining the labor force in unprecedented numbers. In 1987 there were 24.3 million working women (40% of the labor force), and they accounted for 59% of the increase in employment from 1975 to 1987. The participation rate for women in the labor force (the ratio of those working to all women aged fifteen and older) rose from 45.7% in 1975 to 50.6% in 1991 and was expected to reach 50% by 2000.
In 1990 approximately 50 % of all women over fifteen years of age participated in the paid labor force. At that time, two major changes in the female work force were under way. The first was a move away from household-based employment. Peasant women and those from merchant and artisan families had always worked. With self-employment becoming less common, though, the more usual pattern was separation of home and workplace, creating new problems of child care, care of the elderly, and housekeeping responsibilities. The second major change was the increased participation of married women in the labor force. In the 1950s, most women employees were young and single; 62 % of the female labor force in 1960 had never been married. In 1987 about 66 % of the female labor force was married, and only 23 % was made up women who had never married. Some women continued working after marriage, most often in professional and government jobs, but their numbers were small. Others started their own businesses or took over family businesses. More commonly, women left paid labor after marriage, then returned after their youngest children were in school. These middle-age recruits generally took low-paying, part-time service or factory jobs. They continued to have nearly total responsibility for home and children and often justified their employment as an extension of their responsibilities for the care of their families. Despite legal support for equality and some improvement in their status, married women understood that their husbands' jobs demanded long hours and extreme commitment. Because women earned an average of only 60 % as much as men, most did not find it advantageous to take full-time, responsible jobs after marriage, if doing so left no one to manage the household and care for children.
Yet women's status in the labor force was changing in the late 1980s, most likely as a result of changes brought about by the aging of the population (see Elderly people in Japan). Longer life expectancies, smaller families and bunched births, and lowered expectations of being cared for in old age by their children have all led women to participate more fully in the labor force. At the same time, service job opportunities in the postindustrial economy expanded, and there were fewer new male graduates to fill them.
Some of the same demographic factors—low birth rates and high life expectancies—also change workplace demands on husbands. For example, men recognize their need for a different kind of relationship with their wives in anticipation of long postretirement periods.
There is a new term for the female counterpart of the "salaryman" (サラリーマン), the "career woman" (キャリアウーマン).
Women in kimonos, Tokyo, JapanWomen in...
society
Workforce
Military
Politics
Legal rights
academics
Philosophy
Science
Engineering
Computing
Nobel Prize
religion
Buddhism
Christianity
Hinduism
Islam
Judaism
Sikhism
the arts &humanities
Literature
Speculative fiction
cultural works
Comics
Gender has been an important principle of stratification throughout Japanese history[citation needed], but the cultural elaboration of gender differences has varied over time and among different social classes. In the twelfth century (Heian period), for example, women could inherit property in their own names and manage it by themselves[citation needed]. Later, under feudal governments (the Shogunate), the status of women declined. Peasant women continued to have de facto freedom of movement and decisionmaking power, but upper-class women's lives were subject to the patrilineal and patriarchal ideology supported by the government as part of its efforts at social control[citation needed]. With early industrialization, young women participated in factory work under exploitive and unhealthy working conditions without gaining personal autonomy[citation needed]. In the Meiji period, industrialization and urbanization lessened the authority of fathers and husbands, but at the same time the Meiji Civil Code denied women legal rights[citation needed] and subjugated them to the will of household heads[citation needed]. Peasant women were less affected by the institutionalization of this trend, but it gradually spread even to remote areas. In the 1930s and 1940s, the government encouraged the formation of women's associations, applauded high fertility, and regarded motherhood as a patriotic duty to the Japanese Empire[citation needed].
After World War II, the legal position of women was redefined by the occupation authorities, who included an equal rights clause in the 1947 Constitution and the revised Civil Code of 1948. Individual rights were given precedence over obligation to family. Women as well as men were guaranteed the right to choose spouses and occupations, to inherit and own property in their own names, and to retain custody of their children. Women were given the right to vote in 1946. Other postwar reforms opened education institutions to women and required that women receive equal pay for equal work. In 1986 the Equal Employment Opportunity Law took effect. Legally, few barriers to women's equal participation in the life of society remain.
Contents [hide]
1 Education and workforce participation
2 Working women in Japan
3 See also
4 References
5 External links
[edit] Education and workforce participation
Gender inequality, however, continues in family life, the workplace, and popular values. The notion expressed in the proverbial phrase "good wife, wise mother," continues to influence beliefs about gender roles. Most women may not be able to realize that ideal, but many believe that it is in their own, their children's, and society's best interests that they stay home to devote themselves to their children, at least while the children were young. Many women find satisfaction in family life and in the accomplishments of their children, gaining a sense of fulfilment from doing good jobs as household managers and mothers. In most households, women are responsible for their family budgets and make independent decisions about the education, careers, and life-styles of their families. Women also take the social blame for problems of family members.
Women's educational opportunities have increased in the twentieth century. Among new workers in 1989, 37 % of women had received education beyond upper-secondary school, compared with 43 % of men, but most women had received their postsecondary education in junior colleges and technical schools rather than in universities and graduate schools (see Education in Japan).
[edit] Working women in Japan
After World War II, the fixed image of the Japanese woman has been that of the office lady, who becomes a housewife and a kyoiku mama after marriage. But a new generation of educated women is emerging, that is seeking a career as a working woman.
Japanese women are joining the labor force in unprecedented numbers. In 1987 there were 24.3 million working women (40% of the labor force), and they accounted for 59% of the increase in employment from 1975 to 1987. The participation rate for women in the labor force (the ratio of those working to all women aged fifteen and older) rose from 45.7% in 1975 to 50.6% in 1991 and was expected to reach 50% by 2000.
In 1990 approximately 50 % of all women over fifteen years of age participated in the paid labor force. At that time, two major changes in the female work force were under way. The first was a move away from household-based employment. Peasant women and those from merchant and artisan families had always worked. With self-employment becoming less common, though, the more usual pattern was separation of home and workplace, creating new problems of child care, care of the elderly, and housekeeping responsibilities. The second major change was the increased participation of married women in the labor force. In the 1950s, most women employees were young and single; 62 % of the female labor force in 1960 had never been married. In 1987 about 66 % of the female labor force was married, and only 23 % was made up women who had never married. Some women continued working after marriage, most often in professional and government jobs, but their numbers were small. Others started their own businesses or took over family businesses. More commonly, women left paid labor after marriage, then returned after their youngest children were in school. These middle-age recruits generally took low-paying, part-time service or factory jobs. They continued to have nearly total responsibility for home and children and often justified their employment as an extension of their responsibilities for the care of their families. Despite legal support for equality and some improvement in their status, married women understood that their husbands' jobs demanded long hours and extreme commitment. Because women earned an average of only 60 % as much as men, most did not find it advantageous to take full-time, responsible jobs after marriage, if doing so left no one to manage the household and care for children.
Yet women's status in the labor force was changing in the late 1980s, most likely as a result of changes brought about by the aging of the population (see Elderly people in Japan). Longer life expectancies, smaller families and bunched births, and lowered expectations of being cared for in old age by their children have all led women to participate more fully in the labor force. At the same time, service job opportunities in the postindustrial economy expanded, and there were fewer new male graduates to fill them.
Some of the same demographic factors—low birth rates and high life expectancies—also change workplace demands on husbands. For example, men recognize their need for a different kind of relationship with their wives in anticipation of long postretirement periods.
There is a new term for the female counterpart of the "salaryman" (サラリーマン), the "career woman" (キャリアウーマン).
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