Jihad: Looking beyond the myths
What Jihad is:
• The Arabic word Jihad is often translated as holy war, but a more accurate translation is holy struggle. Islamic scholars say the term holy war was actually coined in Europe during the Crusades to mean a war against the Muslims.
• In a purely linguistic sense, the word Jihad means struggling or striving. There are two different, unrelated words which mean war.
• In a religious sense, as described by the Koran and teachings of the Prophet Mohammed, Jihad means striving for the benefit of the community or the restraint of personal sins. It can refer to internal as well as external efforts to be a good Muslim, or believer. Scholars say it primarily refers to efforts to improve oneself.
• Jihad is a religious duty.
• If Jihad is required to protect the faith against others, it can be performed using anything from legal, diplomatic and economic to political means. If there is no peaceful alternative, Islam also allows the use of force, but there are strict rules of engagement. Innocents -- such as women, children, or invalids -- must never be harmed, and any peaceful overtures from the enemy must be accepted.
• Military action is therefore only one means of Jihad, and is very rare. To highlight this point, the Prophet Mohammed told his followers returning from a military campaign: "This day we have returned from the minor Jihad to the major Jihad," which he said meant returning from armed battle to the peaceful battle for self-control and betterment.
• In case military action appears necessary, not everyone can declare Jihad. The religious military campaign has to be declared by a proper authority, advised by scholars, who say the religion and people are under threat and violence is imperative to defend them. The concept of "just war" is very important.
• The concept of Jihad has been hijacked by many political and religious groups over the ages in a bid to justify various forms of violence. In most cases, Islamic splinter groups invoked Jihad to fight against the established Islamic order. Scholars says this misuse of Jihad contradicts Islam.
• Examples of sanctioned military Jihad include the Muslims' defensive battles against the Crusaders in medieval times, and before that some responses by Muslims against Byzantine and Persian attacks during the period of the early Islamic conquests.
What Jihad is not
• Jihad is not a violent concept.
• Jihad is not a declaration of war against other religions. It is worth noting that the Koran specifically refers to Jews and Christians as "people of the book" who should be protected and respected. All three faiths worship the same God. Allah is just the Arabic word for God, and is used by Christian Arabs as well as Muslims.
• Military action in the name of Islam has not been common in the history of Islam. Scholars says most calls for violent Jihad are not sanctioned by Islam.
• Warfare in the name of God is not unique to Islam. Other faiths throughout the world have waged wars with religious justifications.
Tuesday, March 30, 2010
Understanding Islam
Muslims now constitute a significant minority in Western countries, most notably France, Britain, Germany, Canada, and the United States. Consequently, those in the West engaged in theological discourse and pastoral work can no longer consign Islam to the outer limits of their universe of religious concerns. Islam is no longer just "over there," an exotic feature of distant cultures; it is a well-established component of our own religious landscape and deserves attention from all who work to further the Reign of God in our culture.
Having taught courses in Islamic civilization as part of the religious studies curriculum at both secular and church-related institutions, I can give ample testimony to the antagonistic images of Islam obtaining in, and actively perpetuated by, many Western circles. In some cases, it is alarmism that fuels the antagonism ("Muslims are taking over the world!"); in others, the indignation of post-modern Westerners who resent the very existence of a powerful religious tradition which seems to foster "unenlightened" values ("Islam is intolerant, it oppresses women, etc."). It is a situation fraught with the real possibility of bigotry and violence.
As "people of religion," we can be particularly effective in shaping religious sentiment toward Muslims in our society. We can either stoke the fires of antagonism, feeding into the dominant societal trend of "demonizing" Islam and Muslims; or we can fight those fires, challenging people to come to a well-informed, balanced appreciation of this "other" in our midst. Most of us, I assume, would affirm the desirability of the latter option. I would like to offer a few suggestions as to how that option might be realized.
First, expose the caricatures -- both our own and those of others. Such caricatures are usually based on the assumption that Islam is monolithic and that Muslim communities are homogeneous. Both assumptions are false. Just as there are many "Christianities," there are many "Islams" and most have very little to do with "Islamism," that militant, extremist fringe of Islam which, despite its claim to "traditionalism," actually violates such perennial Islamic values as tolerance, forbearance, hospitality, and broad-mindedness. A number of excellent resources can help you in this process -- see the attached reading list. All the recommended authors are Christians who have done much to dispel the rampant misinformation concerning Islam.
Second, reflect on what underlies our tendency to caricature Islam. Many in the Christian world have thrown themselves headlong into the process of challenging the traditional shape of our society and want to eradicate the very memory of its "oppressive" structures. Modernity is uncomfortable with the demands of tradition. When Islam presents itself -- unabashedly, unashamedly -- as a traditional religion, i.e., as a religion based on the structures and values of a traditional cultural system, those who are shaped by secular culture wince. They are reminded of what our own communities once affirmed (and in some quarters, still do affirm) to be true and what was once imposed (and in some quarters, still is imposed) as obligatory. Moreover, I think many recognize, even if only reluctantly, that in dismantling the traditional shape of our religious life, in many ways our religious communities have been debilitated. Islam's vitality and self-confidence reminds us of what we have lost. In short, the growing strength of Islamic identity and the resurgence in Islamic practice only serve to underscore the progressive weakening of Christian identity and the steady diminishment of Christian practice in secularized Western societies. We resent Islam's newly found vitality because it draws attention to our present malaise.
Third, appreciate the practical, external expressions of faith that typify Islamic life. We have much to learn in this regard from Islam. A few years ago even Pope John Paul II pointed to the Muslim fast during the month of Ramadan as an example of the kind of zeal and discipline Christians should, but today rarely do, bring to Lenten fasting. Islam also requires regular prayer -- at least five times a day for the observant Muslim. (While at the University of Pittsburgh, I would regularly chance upon a Muslim student in a quiet corner of a library "making salat" on a prayer rug.) How many Christians can claim to set aside time for prayer so regularly? Muslims must give alms (zakat), not just when they feel moved to do so but as a requisite part of their religious practice; year by year they return a certain percentage of their wealth to the community to even up the inequalities that separate the "haves" from the "have nots." Do we feel so obliged to bridge the gap between the rich and the poor in our communities? Islamic life requires pilgrimage, an experience now largely de-emphasized in modern Christian life. It requires bodily acts of worship like bowing and prostrating, gestures often dismissed as archaic to the "sophisticated" modern Christian. In short, for all of our talk of "incarnational" Christianity, we are becoming a religion less and less likely to enflesh our religious sentiments in external expression. We stress thought and emotion over physicality, enforcing a kind of neo-Gnosticism that sees religion primarily as a "spiritual" sentiment, having little to do with bodily performance. This is, I would say, a most unfortunate trend. Islam reminds us of the need for physical religious enactment.
Fourth, highlight the Islamic emphasis on community life and on the individual's accountability to community standards. As Christianity in the Western world becomes more atomized and Christian spirituality more privatized, Islam provides a strong testimony to the power of community. One of my Muslim students once remarked, "Wherever I go, whether in the Islamic world or outside it, even if I cannot find a local community of Muslims, I am always aware that I am part of a worldwide community. This is always at the forefront of my mind. It forges my whole identity. It guides my every action. The umma [Islamic community] gives me strength, and I willingly give it my loyalty." In a culture where commitment to religious community is becoming increasingly rare, and accountability of any sort (whether to a religious tradition or any other "authority") is seen almost as an infringement of personal rights, the communocentric emphasis of Islam can seem somewhat archaic. It should, however, challenge us Christians in particular to revitalize our communal structures, even if that means drawing boundaries between ourselves and "the world," boundaries that have been blurred by encroaching secularization. In re-thinking our definition of religious communities and re-shaping the dynamics of life within them, we can learn some valuable lessons from the Muslim experience.
Fifth, use dialogue with Islam as a way not only to increase our appreciation of the Islamic tradition but also to deepen our appreciation of the distinctive features of our own. Make no mistake about it: despite sizeable areas of "common ground," there is a wide theological chasm between Islam and Christianity. It was largely in reaction to an often distorted presentation of Christian doctrine that Islam formed its own doctrinal heritage. Islamic doctrine challenges us to embrace anew those facets of Christian theology which differentiate us from Muslims -- especially the mystery of the Trinity and the divine Sonship of Christ -- and then to find new and ever more insightful ways of articulating these dogmas. Simple repetition of traditional formulas usually does not suffice to foster greater understanding of Christianity among Muslims (or among Christians, for that matter)! In questioning the central Christian doctrines, Islam serves us well: it requires us to focus specifically on those distinctive beliefs that are constitutive of our view of God and the world and to find more effective ways of proclaiming and explaining them both to those within the "household of Christianity" and to those without.
Sixth, and finally, make personal contact with Muslim communities and individuals. It is much more difficult to caricature people we know than those we keep at a distance. Call the local Islamic center and ask to be put on the mailing list. These centers often sponsor lectures of public interest; attend one and talk to members of the host community. Groups from the mosque and your church may want to exchange visits. Social service programs can provide opportunities for mosque and church to join together in a common cause. The possibilities for such encounters abound and, if realized, usually bear much good fruit.
Conclusion: On their course evaluation forms, two students in my "Introduction to Islamic Civilization" wrote remarks that I found especially gratifying. The first wrote, "When I signed up for this course, I had nothing but disdain for Muslims; now I am actually able to see the beauty of their religion." The other wrote, "Studying Islam has made me better able to see what it means for me to say that I am Christian." These students articulated well what I consider the two main reasons for us to come to an appreciation of Islam. Doing so will enable us not only to affirm this important "other" in our midst and but also to clarify our own identity.
[reprinted from In Communion issue 10, July 1997]
Fr. Theodore Pulcini, a priest of the Antiochian Orthodox Christian Archdiocese of North America, is Assistant Professor of Religion at Dickinson College, Carlisle, PA 17013. His articles have appeared in Diakonia, The Journal of Ecumenical Studies, Church Divinity, Commonweal, and St. Vladimir's Theological Quarterly. His essay is reprinted from New Theology Review.
Having taught courses in Islamic civilization as part of the religious studies curriculum at both secular and church-related institutions, I can give ample testimony to the antagonistic images of Islam obtaining in, and actively perpetuated by, many Western circles. In some cases, it is alarmism that fuels the antagonism ("Muslims are taking over the world!"); in others, the indignation of post-modern Westerners who resent the very existence of a powerful religious tradition which seems to foster "unenlightened" values ("Islam is intolerant, it oppresses women, etc."). It is a situation fraught with the real possibility of bigotry and violence.
As "people of religion," we can be particularly effective in shaping religious sentiment toward Muslims in our society. We can either stoke the fires of antagonism, feeding into the dominant societal trend of "demonizing" Islam and Muslims; or we can fight those fires, challenging people to come to a well-informed, balanced appreciation of this "other" in our midst. Most of us, I assume, would affirm the desirability of the latter option. I would like to offer a few suggestions as to how that option might be realized.
First, expose the caricatures -- both our own and those of others. Such caricatures are usually based on the assumption that Islam is monolithic and that Muslim communities are homogeneous. Both assumptions are false. Just as there are many "Christianities," there are many "Islams" and most have very little to do with "Islamism," that militant, extremist fringe of Islam which, despite its claim to "traditionalism," actually violates such perennial Islamic values as tolerance, forbearance, hospitality, and broad-mindedness. A number of excellent resources can help you in this process -- see the attached reading list. All the recommended authors are Christians who have done much to dispel the rampant misinformation concerning Islam.
Second, reflect on what underlies our tendency to caricature Islam. Many in the Christian world have thrown themselves headlong into the process of challenging the traditional shape of our society and want to eradicate the very memory of its "oppressive" structures. Modernity is uncomfortable with the demands of tradition. When Islam presents itself -- unabashedly, unashamedly -- as a traditional religion, i.e., as a religion based on the structures and values of a traditional cultural system, those who are shaped by secular culture wince. They are reminded of what our own communities once affirmed (and in some quarters, still do affirm) to be true and what was once imposed (and in some quarters, still is imposed) as obligatory. Moreover, I think many recognize, even if only reluctantly, that in dismantling the traditional shape of our religious life, in many ways our religious communities have been debilitated. Islam's vitality and self-confidence reminds us of what we have lost. In short, the growing strength of Islamic identity and the resurgence in Islamic practice only serve to underscore the progressive weakening of Christian identity and the steady diminishment of Christian practice in secularized Western societies. We resent Islam's newly found vitality because it draws attention to our present malaise.
Third, appreciate the practical, external expressions of faith that typify Islamic life. We have much to learn in this regard from Islam. A few years ago even Pope John Paul II pointed to the Muslim fast during the month of Ramadan as an example of the kind of zeal and discipline Christians should, but today rarely do, bring to Lenten fasting. Islam also requires regular prayer -- at least five times a day for the observant Muslim. (While at the University of Pittsburgh, I would regularly chance upon a Muslim student in a quiet corner of a library "making salat" on a prayer rug.) How many Christians can claim to set aside time for prayer so regularly? Muslims must give alms (zakat), not just when they feel moved to do so but as a requisite part of their religious practice; year by year they return a certain percentage of their wealth to the community to even up the inequalities that separate the "haves" from the "have nots." Do we feel so obliged to bridge the gap between the rich and the poor in our communities? Islamic life requires pilgrimage, an experience now largely de-emphasized in modern Christian life. It requires bodily acts of worship like bowing and prostrating, gestures often dismissed as archaic to the "sophisticated" modern Christian. In short, for all of our talk of "incarnational" Christianity, we are becoming a religion less and less likely to enflesh our religious sentiments in external expression. We stress thought and emotion over physicality, enforcing a kind of neo-Gnosticism that sees religion primarily as a "spiritual" sentiment, having little to do with bodily performance. This is, I would say, a most unfortunate trend. Islam reminds us of the need for physical religious enactment.
Fourth, highlight the Islamic emphasis on community life and on the individual's accountability to community standards. As Christianity in the Western world becomes more atomized and Christian spirituality more privatized, Islam provides a strong testimony to the power of community. One of my Muslim students once remarked, "Wherever I go, whether in the Islamic world or outside it, even if I cannot find a local community of Muslims, I am always aware that I am part of a worldwide community. This is always at the forefront of my mind. It forges my whole identity. It guides my every action. The umma [Islamic community] gives me strength, and I willingly give it my loyalty." In a culture where commitment to religious community is becoming increasingly rare, and accountability of any sort (whether to a religious tradition or any other "authority") is seen almost as an infringement of personal rights, the communocentric emphasis of Islam can seem somewhat archaic. It should, however, challenge us Christians in particular to revitalize our communal structures, even if that means drawing boundaries between ourselves and "the world," boundaries that have been blurred by encroaching secularization. In re-thinking our definition of religious communities and re-shaping the dynamics of life within them, we can learn some valuable lessons from the Muslim experience.
Fifth, use dialogue with Islam as a way not only to increase our appreciation of the Islamic tradition but also to deepen our appreciation of the distinctive features of our own. Make no mistake about it: despite sizeable areas of "common ground," there is a wide theological chasm between Islam and Christianity. It was largely in reaction to an often distorted presentation of Christian doctrine that Islam formed its own doctrinal heritage. Islamic doctrine challenges us to embrace anew those facets of Christian theology which differentiate us from Muslims -- especially the mystery of the Trinity and the divine Sonship of Christ -- and then to find new and ever more insightful ways of articulating these dogmas. Simple repetition of traditional formulas usually does not suffice to foster greater understanding of Christianity among Muslims (or among Christians, for that matter)! In questioning the central Christian doctrines, Islam serves us well: it requires us to focus specifically on those distinctive beliefs that are constitutive of our view of God and the world and to find more effective ways of proclaiming and explaining them both to those within the "household of Christianity" and to those without.
Sixth, and finally, make personal contact with Muslim communities and individuals. It is much more difficult to caricature people we know than those we keep at a distance. Call the local Islamic center and ask to be put on the mailing list. These centers often sponsor lectures of public interest; attend one and talk to members of the host community. Groups from the mosque and your church may want to exchange visits. Social service programs can provide opportunities for mosque and church to join together in a common cause. The possibilities for such encounters abound and, if realized, usually bear much good fruit.
Conclusion: On their course evaluation forms, two students in my "Introduction to Islamic Civilization" wrote remarks that I found especially gratifying. The first wrote, "When I signed up for this course, I had nothing but disdain for Muslims; now I am actually able to see the beauty of their religion." The other wrote, "Studying Islam has made me better able to see what it means for me to say that I am Christian." These students articulated well what I consider the two main reasons for us to come to an appreciation of Islam. Doing so will enable us not only to affirm this important "other" in our midst and but also to clarify our own identity.
[reprinted from In Communion issue 10, July 1997]
Fr. Theodore Pulcini, a priest of the Antiochian Orthodox Christian Archdiocese of North America, is Assistant Professor of Religion at Dickinson College, Carlisle, PA 17013. His articles have appeared in Diakonia, The Journal of Ecumenical Studies, Church Divinity, Commonweal, and St. Vladimir's Theological Quarterly. His essay is reprinted from New Theology Review.
Let's set the record straight!
Let's set the record straight!
Allah: Just means God in Arabic, the same God we all worship.
jihad: Often mistranslated "holy war," especially against the West, the more accurate Arabic meaning is "struggle." Jihad is the struggle to control one's lower instincts. Jihad also means to use a fair war to give a nation freedom of religion if all other means fail. Islam's main proclamation is "No compulsion in religion" Koran 2:255. The Afghani Mujahideen (those who do jihad) fought against the atheist Russians to keep their freedom of religion. Unfortunately, chaos ensued.
extremism: "We made you a nation that should take the middle way in all its affairs before all humanity . . ." (2:143) "God does not love the excessive ones." (6:141)
suicide "martyrdom": "Do not kill yourselves." (4:29). Self-killers are condemned to hell. Even killing oneself to end extreme pain is unacceptable. Some radical sects, considered non-Muslim by most, view suicide-killing as legitimate.
martyrdom: A martyr (Arabic shaheed=witness) is somebody who dies as a witness for goodness or a witness against evil. A martyr testifies before God about the evil-doers that killed him/her and about the goodness his/her death creates in society.
terrorism: The punishment for those who wreak havoc is extremely harsh (5:33-34). Terrorism has as little to do with Islam as burning a cross to terrorize a black family has to do with Christianity. Terrorism is often done by haters of Islam, peace and justice to sabotage good Muslims causes such as peace settlements, democracy movements and modernization. No Islamic teaching supports terrorism.
on killing innocent people: "And do not kill the soul that God gave sanctity to except by law." (17:33) The Koran tells us that killing one person is like killing all humanity.
family values: Husbands and wives serve each other. Muslim families cherish traditional family values and close relations with the extended family. Women may work and own businesses, but the husband alone has the duty to provide for the family. Children are expected to take care of their parents when they get old.
treatment of women: Misinformation about this subject has fanned much of the hatred about Muslims. Here is what we are really taught: (1) Paradise is under the "feet" of the mother; (2) a good wife is half a man's religion, (3) men are ordered to "treat them in good ways," (Koran 4:19) and that, in the words of the Prophet Mohammed in his last sermon, (4) "the best of you is the one that is best to his wife."
four wives: Islam was the first religion to limit the number of wives. But the taking of more than one wife was meant to happen only when there was social necessity, such a during war times when there were a large number of widows and orphans. A husband is required to treat each wife with absolute fairness and equality and to have only one wife if he doubts he can be fair. Polygamy is illegal in America and, according to Islam, Muslims are bound by American law.
scarves for women: This is based on a verse in the Koran. "And let them spread their scarves over their shirt openings and not show their natural adornment . . ." (24:31) If Muslim women choose not to cover their head, there is no Islamic law punishing them or coercing them. Styles of dress are cultural and vary according to culture throughout the Islamic world.
female genital mutilation: This is found in some African countries and is a very painful tribal practice passed down to the present day. It is not based on Islamic teaching. Many Muslim women, such as the wife of the late Anwar Sadat, are working hard to eliminate the practice.
Deviations from the Islamic norm are cultural or political biases not based on Islam.
Allah: Just means God in Arabic, the same God we all worship.
jihad: Often mistranslated "holy war," especially against the West, the more accurate Arabic meaning is "struggle." Jihad is the struggle to control one's lower instincts. Jihad also means to use a fair war to give a nation freedom of religion if all other means fail. Islam's main proclamation is "No compulsion in religion" Koran 2:255. The Afghani Mujahideen (those who do jihad) fought against the atheist Russians to keep their freedom of religion. Unfortunately, chaos ensued.
extremism: "We made you a nation that should take the middle way in all its affairs before all humanity . . ." (2:143) "God does not love the excessive ones." (6:141)
suicide "martyrdom": "Do not kill yourselves." (4:29). Self-killers are condemned to hell. Even killing oneself to end extreme pain is unacceptable. Some radical sects, considered non-Muslim by most, view suicide-killing as legitimate.
martyrdom: A martyr (Arabic shaheed=witness) is somebody who dies as a witness for goodness or a witness against evil. A martyr testifies before God about the evil-doers that killed him/her and about the goodness his/her death creates in society.
terrorism: The punishment for those who wreak havoc is extremely harsh (5:33-34). Terrorism has as little to do with Islam as burning a cross to terrorize a black family has to do with Christianity. Terrorism is often done by haters of Islam, peace and justice to sabotage good Muslims causes such as peace settlements, democracy movements and modernization. No Islamic teaching supports terrorism.
on killing innocent people: "And do not kill the soul that God gave sanctity to except by law." (17:33) The Koran tells us that killing one person is like killing all humanity.
family values: Husbands and wives serve each other. Muslim families cherish traditional family values and close relations with the extended family. Women may work and own businesses, but the husband alone has the duty to provide for the family. Children are expected to take care of their parents when they get old.
treatment of women: Misinformation about this subject has fanned much of the hatred about Muslims. Here is what we are really taught: (1) Paradise is under the "feet" of the mother; (2) a good wife is half a man's religion, (3) men are ordered to "treat them in good ways," (Koran 4:19) and that, in the words of the Prophet Mohammed in his last sermon, (4) "the best of you is the one that is best to his wife."
four wives: Islam was the first religion to limit the number of wives. But the taking of more than one wife was meant to happen only when there was social necessity, such a during war times when there were a large number of widows and orphans. A husband is required to treat each wife with absolute fairness and equality and to have only one wife if he doubts he can be fair. Polygamy is illegal in America and, according to Islam, Muslims are bound by American law.
scarves for women: This is based on a verse in the Koran. "And let them spread their scarves over their shirt openings and not show their natural adornment . . ." (24:31) If Muslim women choose not to cover their head, there is no Islamic law punishing them or coercing them. Styles of dress are cultural and vary according to culture throughout the Islamic world.
female genital mutilation: This is found in some African countries and is a very painful tribal practice passed down to the present day. It is not based on Islamic teaching. Many Muslim women, such as the wife of the late Anwar Sadat, are working hard to eliminate the practice.
Deviations from the Islamic norm are cultural or political biases not based on Islam.
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